Pericles (Leader of Athens) Biography

Pericles (sometimes spelled Perikles) lived between about 495–429 B.C.E. and was one of the most important leaders of the classical period of Athens, Greece. He is largely responsible for rebuilding the city following the devastating Persian Wars of 502–449 B.C.E. He was also Athens leader during (and probably fomenter of) the Peloponnesian War (431–404); and he died of the Plague of Athens that ravaged the city between 430 and 426 B.C.E. He was so important to classical Greek history that the era in which he lived is known as the Age of Pericles. Greek Sources about Pericles What we know of Pericles comes from three main sources. The earliest is known as the Funeral Oration of Pericles. It was written by the Greek philosopher Thucydides (460–395 B.C.E.), who said he was quoting Pericles himself. Pericles gave his speech at the end of the first year of the Peloponnesian war (431 B.C.E.). In it, Pericles (or Thucydides) extols the values of democracy. The Menexenus was probably written by Plato (ca. 428–347 B.C.E.) or by someone who was imitating Plato. It too is a Funeral Oration citing the history of Athens, and the text was partly borrowed from Thucydides but it is a satire ridiculing the practice. Its format is a dialogue between Socrates and Menexenus, and in it, Socrates opines that Pericles mistress Aspasia wrote the Funeral Oration of Pericles. Finally, and most substantially, in his book The Parallel Lives, the first century C.E. Roman historian Plutarch wrote the Life of Pericles and a Comparison of Pericles and Fabius Maximum. English translations of all of these texts are long out of copyright and available on the Internet. Family Through his mother Agariste, Pericles was a member of the Alcmeonids, a powerful family in Athens, who claimed descent from Nestor (king of Pylos in The Odyssey) and whose earliest notable member was from the seventh century B.C.E. The Alcemons were accused of treachery at the Battle of Marathon. His father was Xanthippus, a military leader during the Persian Wars, and the victor at the Battle of Mycale. He was the son of Ariphon, who was ostracized—a common political punishment for prominent Athenians consisting of a 10-year banishment from Athens—but was returned to the city when the Persian Wars began. Pericles was married to a woman whose name is not mentioned by Plutarch but was a close relative. They had two sons, Xanthippus and Paralus, and divorced in 445 B.C.E. Both sons died in the Plague of Athens. Pericles also had a mistress, perhaps a courtesan but also a teacher and intellectual called Aspasia of Miletus, with whom he had one son, Pericles the Younger. Education Pericles was said by Plutarch to have been shy as a young man because he was rich, and of such stellar lineage with well-born friends, that he was afraid hed be ostracized for that alone. Instead, he devoted himself to a military career, where he was brave and enterprising. Then he became a politician. His teachers included the musicians Damon and Pythocleides. Pericles was also a pupil of Zeno of Elea, famous for his logical paradoxes, such as the one in which he was said to have proven that motion cant occur. His most important teacher was Anaxagoras of Clazomenae (500-428 BCE), called Nous (Mind). Anaxagoras is best known for his then-outrageous contention that the sun was a fiery rock. Public Offices The first known public event in Pericles life was the position of choregos. Choregoi were the producers of ancient Greeces theatrical community, selected from the wealthiest Athenians who had a duty to support dramatic productions. Choregoi paid for everything from staff salaries to sets, special effects, and music. In 472, Pericles funded and produced the playwright Aeschylus play The Persians. Pericles also gained the office of military archon or strategos, which is usually translated into English as a military general. Pericles was elected strategos in 460, and he remained that for the next 29 years. Pericles, Cimon, and Democracy In the 460s, the Helots rebelled against the Spartans who asked for help from Athens. In response to Spartas request for help, Athens leader Cimon led troops into Sparta. The Spartans sent them back, probably fearing the effects of Athenian democratic ideas on their own government. Cimon had favored Athens oligarchic adherents, and, according to the opposing faction led by Pericles who had come into power by the time Cimon returned, Cimon was a lover of Sparta and a hater of the Athenians. He was ostracized and banished from Athens for 10 years, but eventually brought back for the Peloponnesian Wars. Building Projects From about 458–456, Pericles had the Long Walls built. The Long Walls were about 6 kilometers in length and built in several phases. They were a strategic asset to Athens, connecting the city with Piraeus, a peninsula with three harbors about 4.5 miles from Athens. The walls protected the citys access to the Aegean, but they were destroyed by Sparta at the end of the Peloponnesian War. On the Acropolis at Athens, Pericles built the Parthenon, the Propylaea, and a giant statue of Athena Promachus. He also had temples and shrines built to other gods to replace those that had been destroyed by the Persians during the wars. The treasury from the Delian alliance funded the building projects. Radical Democracy and Citizenship Law Among the contributions made by Pericles to the Athenian democracy was the payment of magistrates. This was one reason the Athenians under Pericles decided to limit the people eligible to hold office. Only those born to two people of Athenian citizen status could henceforth be citizens and eligible to be magistrates. Children of foreign mothers were explicitly excluded. Metic is the word for a foreigner living in Athens. Since a metic woman couldnt produce citizen children when Pericles had a mistress Aspasia of Miletus, he couldnt or, at least, didnt marry her. After his death, the law was changed so that his son could be both a citizen and his heir. Artists Depiction According to Plutarch, although Pericles appearance was unimpeachable, his head was long and out of proportion. The comic poets of his day called him Schinocephalus or squill head (pen head). Because of Pericles abnormally long head, he was often depicted wearing a helmet. The Plague of Athens and the Death of Pericles In 430, the Spartans and their allies invaded Attica, signaling the start of the Peloponnesian War. At the same time, a plague broke out in a city overcrowded by the presence of refugees from the rural areas. Pericles was suspended from the office of strategos, found guilty of theft and fined 50 talents. Because Athens still needed him, Pericles was then reinstated, but then, about a year after he lost his own two sons in the plague, Pericles died in the fall of 429, two and a half years after the Peloponnesian War began. Edited and updated by K. Kris Hirst Sources Thucydides. Pericles Funeral Oration from the Peloponnesian War (Book 2.34-46). Ancient History Sourcebook. Fordham University. 2000. Web.Monoson, S. Sara. Remembering Pericles: The Political and Theoretical Import of Platos Menexenus. Political Theory 26.4 (1998): 489-513. Print.OSullivan, Neil. Pericles and Protagoras. Greece Rome 42.1 (1995): 15-23. Print.Plato. The Menexenus. Translater Benjamin Jowett 1892. Project Gutenberg, 2013. Web.Plutarch. Comparison of Pericles and Fabius Maximus. The Parallel Lives of Plutarch. Loeb Classical Library 1914. LacusCurtius Web.—-. The Life of Pericles. The Parallel Lives of Plutarch. Loeb Classical Library 1916. LacusCurtius Web.Stadter, Philip A. Pericles among the Intellectuals. Illinois Classical Studies 16.1/2 (1991): 111-24. Print.—-. The Rhetoric of Plutarchs Pericles. Ancient Society 18 (1987): 251-69. Print.

Automated Bus Stations, Amtrak s Quik Track Self Service...

Daily commuters are always in lookout for faster and better ticketing system. Daily Travelers are usually in hurry when travelling and seeking good experience when it comes to the process of buying a train tickets or making a reservation. To study and observe how people use this ticket system at train stations, Amtrak’s Quik-Track Self-Service Ticketing Kiosk is an ideal choice. The observations took place at 30th Street Station, Philadelphia. One might ask what is this kiosk system for? The kiosk system allows Amtrak customers to pick up and print out their tickets. This is very useful technological system because it avoids passenger to stand in a line just to buy a ticket. Quik-Trak Self-Service Ticketing Kiosk works by prompting users†¦show more content†¦The people would walk to the kiosk, pull out their credit card and insert it, then select the appropriate dates and destinations, and the ticket will be printed. However, people took different amount of time to pe rform those tasks. Teenagers took longer because they were joking around. Whereas, people in hurry were very quick in performing those tasks. As I was observing how they were performing the tasks, I noticed a person’s card would not get accepted by the system. I saw him use different cards but the system’s card reader might have been broken. He also seemed frustrated because it was almost time for departure so at last minute to have this types of problem is frustrating. The primary system was being used to perform those tasks was Quik-Trak Self-Service Ticketing Kiosk. However, I saw some people pulled out their phones to scan their barcode. Some people were constantly looking at their watches and phones as they were using the kiosk ticketing system. Some people were talking and texting on their phones while they used the system. So the system allows user to operate other technologies while they use the system. I observed other people use phone technology to print out their tickets. Amtrak allows user to make reservation online and all users have to do is go to the ticketing system and scan the confirmation barcode on a phone and it prints out the physical paper ticket. It saves time from having to enter everything on

Tradition in William Faulkners A Rose for Emily and...

Tradition in William Faulkners A Rose for Emily and Shirley Jacksons The Lottery People throughout the world do things for many different reasons. Religion, peer pressure, or tradition are some of the reasons the people do things. In the U.S. we have many traditions such as Christmas. Some people have strange or out of the ordinary traditions. The two short stories ?The Lottery? and ?A Rose for Emily? both portray tradition. In ?The Lottery?, tradition is showed in three main ways. First, Old Man Warner says, ?there has always been a lottery (Jackson 11).? The town people accept The Lottery because there has always been a lottery. The older people in the town such as Old Man Warner keep the tradition alive with their ideals.†¦show more content†¦Emily. Tradition is shown when the older generation of people put lime down instead of confronting Emily with the smell. The elders of the town also allowed Emily to go without paying taxes after she told them she did not have to pay them. Finally, tradition is shown with Emily cutting her hair. Emily cut her hair after her father died (Faulkner ?). This shows some tradition because women in that time and place of society do not cut their hair unless they want to show something. Emily was showing she had gotten over her father?s death and ready to move on with her life. ?The Lottery? and ?A Rose for Emily? both show tradition in the same ways. First, both stories have women as the main characters as the ones showing tradition. Miss. Emily was the woman in ?A Rose for Emily? that showed tradition. Tessie was the woman in ?The Lottery? that showed tradition in the story. Second, in both stories the elders had the strongest tradition. In the story ?A Rose for Emily? the older generation are the ones that respected Emily and let her get away with many things such as the taxes. In ?The Lottery? old man Warner was the person keeping ?The Lottery? alive with his ideals and his role in ?The Lottery? throughout the years. Finally, in both stories the tradition changed a little. In ?A Rose for Emily? the younger generation was changing the tradition in the way they treat the elder, august named people. In ?The Lottery? theShow MoreRelatedThe Lottery, By Shirley Jackson And A Rose For Emily By William Faulkner960 Words   |  4 PagesThe Use of Symbolis m in â€Å"The Lottery† by Shirley Jackson and â€Å"A Rose for Emily† by William Faulkner The use of symbolism is used in literature to enhance writing and add meaning to a story, this is evident in the two short stories â€Å"The Lottery† written by Shirley Jackson and â€Å"A Rose for Emily† written by William Faulkner. With the authors use of symbolism Jackson and Faulkner are able to add depth to their writing in a way that connects with the readers. By adding symbolism to the short storiesRead MoreEssay about A Rose for Emily vs the Lottery940 Words   |  4 Pages There are many ways that a reader can be prepared for the ending of a story, â€Å"The Lottery† and â€Å"A Rose for Emily† are two very grueling short stories with a long suspense and a similar plot. The narrator’s stance in â€Å"A Rose for Emily† was first-person observer, which is defined as a single character point of view in which the narrator was is not involved with the story and the narrator’s stance in â€Å"The Lottery† was third-perso n anonymous which is involves a narrator that does not enter any mindsRead MoreTraditions in The Lottery by Shirley Jackson and A Rose for Emily by William Faulkner1176 Words   |  5 PagesThroughout the world there have been bazaar rituals or traditions that don’t usually happen in the United States. To us it may seem wrong and cruel but to those countries seems to be the right thing to do because that is what they believe in. Some countries do their rituals or traditions like every single year. Most of them are somewhat similar or different but still have the same aspect. There are many people who still follow these traditions or try to escape to another place so they can be freeRead MoreWilliam Faulkner s A Rose For Emily And Shirley Jackson s `` The Lottery ``1061 Words   |  5 PagesWilliam Faulkner’s, â€Å"A Rose for Emily† and Shirley Jackson’s, â€Å"The Lottery† short stories have a unique way of sharing similarities but have their di fferences. Both authors open up their stories as a quite everyday small town with everyday people. Faulkner and Jackson both use an individual type of foreshowing and use a great deal of imagery to pull the reader into their story. There is a history behind each story and each with their own family backgrounds. Tradition has a major role in each as

Oloudah Equianos The Slave Trade Essay example - 934 Words

Oloudah Equianos The Slave Trade Olaudah Equiano was born in 1745 in an area of Africa which is now Nigeria. At the age of eleven he was captured and brought into slavery. In his book, The Slave Trade, Equiano describes the slave trade during this time. He illustrates how he became a slave and how slaves were treated. Through his descriptions of his homeland and other aspects of his life, we gain insight into the state of world trade at that time. Equianos description of his homeland exemplifies the Columbian Exchange in operation. First of all, Equiano discusses how planters from the West Indies preferred slaves from Benin because of their ability and hardiness. This statement illustrates a connection between the Eastern†¦show more content†¦One way to become a slave in Equianos homeland was to be convicted of a heinous crime such as kidnapping or adultery. Slavery was used as a kind of punishment for these crimes. Prisoners of war were also many times condemned to slavery. Many of these prisoners were purchased by the Oye-Eboe. Another method slave traders used to obtain slaves was through the act of kidnapping. Olaudah Equiano, along with his sister, was brought to slavery this way. Equiano and his sister were home alone one day and were captured by a man and a woman who couldve been Oye-Eboe. There were many,ways to become a slave in Equianos time. Equianos treatment as a slave illustrates a sharp contrast between how slaves were treated in Africa as opposed to his treatment on a British slave ship. Equiano first describes how he was treated during his kidnapping. Both he and his sister were starved, tied up, gagged, and placed in a bag; this treatment, however, doesnt compare to how he was treated later on. Equiano discusses the many different masters he worked for while still in Africa. Equiano was mainly a house servant and treated well, in some instances almost like one of the family. Once he was purchased in order to serve as a companion to a widows son, and was treated with as much respect as his young master. Family was greatly respected in Africa, even the families of slaves. Equiano was reunited with his sister by chance during his service for a particular master. He andShow MoreRelatedThe French And Indian Wars Essay1181 Words   |  5 Pageslingering issues that these superpowers had with one another carried on to the Americas. This led to several issues such as war and slavery. One of the French and Indian wars completely changed the life of Eunice Williams while the transatlantic slave trade did the same for Olaudah Equiano. In the early Eighteenth century there was a tremendous amount of hostility between France and England in the Americas. France and England both had territories in North America and as they started expanding they

How does Shakespeare create tension in the trial scene of the Merchant of Venice Essay Example For Students

How does Shakespeare create tension in the trial scene of the Merchant of Venice Essay The Merchant of Venice is a play by Shakespeare set in Venice in 1592; at this time the English looked up to Venetians and they were seen as very fashionable people. Venice was also the trading capital of the world as there was an increase in overseas trade and merchants became very well respected. At the time the attitude towards Jews was hostile and they were treated very badly, there was a lot of prejudice against Jews. They were seen as criminals as some Jews committed usury and they were looked down on by Christians. The play has been set in Venice as it is about a Jewish usurer called Shylock; he is seeking revenge on a wealthy Christian Merchant called Antonio and by setting it in Venice the audience are more likely to sympathise with Antonio and see Shylock as the evil one as he is a Jewish usurer. Within my essay I will be exploring and analysing the techniques Shakespeare uses in the trial scene of his play, The Merchant of Venice, to create and build up dramatic tension for the audience. The main plot of The Merchant of Venice is that Antonio agrees to an extreme bond; if the loan of 3000 ducats is not paid back to Shylock within the deadline Shylock can claim a pound of Antonios flesh. Shylock describes the bond: an equal pound of your fair flesh, to be cut off and taken in what part of your body pleaseth me. Antonio agrees to the bond: Content, in faith; Ill seal to such a bond Unfortunately, all of his ships are shipwrecked so he is unable to pay back the money to Shylock. Consequently, Shylock is seeking revenge on Antonio as he has been mistreated his whole life as he is a Jew and therefore he becomes inhumane with the power and control he seems to have when he becomes obsessed with taking revenge as he has this bond against Antonio. The subplot of The Merchant of Venice is focused on romance as Bassanio and Portia fall in love as he wins her in a lottery (a choice of three chests one of them allowing them to be married) created by her father. The romance between Bassanio and Portia gives a slight relief to the tension created between Shylock and Antonio and it lightens the tone of the play distracting the audience away from the obsessive and hostile atmosphere they create. In the end the lovers have a happy, playful ending which leaves Antonio alive but alone and Shylock is punished mercilessly by Portia as he has to live the rest of his life in pain. The trial scene is the climax of the play, Shylock is becoming obsessed with the reality of taking revenge on Antonio: The pound of flesh, which I demand of him, is dearly brought, tis mine, and I will have it Shylock is becoming extremely impatient for his bond and he is set on taking his revenge, he is showing no mercy. In the trial scene Antonio is preparing to die: I am armed and well prepared. Give me your hand, Bassanio, fare you well! As Antonio is expecting the worst it creates dramatic tension as the audience feel the hopeless situation that Antonio is in and are willing the events of the trial to turn in his favour. Shakespeare cleverly builds up the tension, and creates suspense in the scene to keep the audience on edge. During the trial scene the drama and irony is added with the disguise of Nerissa and Portia as they change the direction of the trial, as the events turn in Antonios favour. Shakespeare begins the build up of dramatic tension in the opening of the court scene with the introductory speeches. When the Duke talks about Shylock he presents him as an inhumane man with a cold heart and no mercy. He describes Shylock A stony adversary Uncapable of pity, void and empty from any dram of mercy. This implies that he feel thats shylock has no feelings and that he sees him as an opponent with not even a little bit of mercy. This creates some tension as we are reminded of Shylocks unwavering, remorseless character. Shakespeare also uses Antonio to create dramatic tension in the beginning of the court scene when he presents himself. He says His rigorous course; but since he stands obdurate, and that no lawful means that can carry me out of his envys reach, I do oppose my patience to his fury when Antonio says this it conveys the sense that he is preparing himself for the worst and he seems aware that Shylock is a stubborn man and he is expecting to die as Shylock will get what he wants by law. This creates dramatic tension for the audience as it feels like Antonios death is definite as he doesnt seem to have any hope that he will live, he is simply accepting that he will die from the start of the court scene. Shylock is a solitary figure as he is entering a trial where he is surrounded by Christians that despise him. They use his religion to isolate him; the duke calls for Shylock to enter the court: Go one, and call the Jew into the court. By calling him Jew it conveys the little respect the Christians in the court have for him and emphasises that he is completely alone. He is structured into a sympathetic character as he is completely isolated and he has no one to support him in the trial and therefore it will be harder for him to get his way and take his lethal revenge on Antonio. Dramatic tension builds up as the need for Shylocks mercy is apparent and they are pleading with him; this creates tension as it shows the desperation of the people defending Antonio as they w orry for his life. The duke is asking Shylock for mercy: Glancing an eye upon his losses Enow to press a royal merchant down, and pluck commiseration of his state We all expect a gentle answer, Jew The duke is desperately trying to give Shylock a reason to have mercy, he is listing everything that Antonio has lost and hoping that this will make Shylock think differently about the situation. He is expecting Shylock to have mercy as he calls him a gentle Jew. This suspends the dramatic tension as the audience wait to receive Shylocks response. Shakespeare extends the suspense as to whether Shylock will insist on his bond as he stalls his answer leaving the audience on edge: Youll ask me why I rather choose to have a weight of carrion flesh than to receive three thousand ducats: Ill not answer that. But say its my humour, is it answered? This gives the impression that Shylock is enjoying the power he has as he is using humour to insist on his bond, he is becoming excited with the reality of receiving his bond and is playing with the Christians, leaving them on edge as they await his answer. Merchant of Venice, Act 1 scene 3, Act 2 scene 5 EssayNo one knows exactly what Portia is doing, this adds to the tension as the audience dont know what to expect and they do not understand why she is telling Shylock he can have his bond. This confusion and worry for Antonio in the audience adds to the build up of tension as they do not know what the end result will be, they are expecting a twist of events but they dont know for sure what will happen, this suspense will keep them on edge as they await the final result. The dramatic tension is being built up and prolonged as Portia delays the court: Tarry a little, there is something else, the delay shows that Shylocks desire for revenge; he is very eager and impatient and as he keeps getting interrupted it makes him even more frustrated and impatient to get his revenge. His response to a reasonable request for a surgeon is: tis not in the bond this implies that Shylock wants to get on with it and he is becoming irrational as he wants Antonio dead. His behaviour will affect the audience as they will have less sympathy because he is acting inhumane and irrational and his impatience is becoming obsessive and aggressive. Shakespeare is manipulating the audience as they cannot decide who to feel sorry for as the perception of the characters change throughout the trial scene. At first they might sympathise with Shylock when he is a solitary figure and is called the Jew then they could begin to see him as an inhumane, irrational man who is becoming too obsessive with taking revenge, therefore changing the audiences mind about who to sympathise with. After Antonio gives his poignant speech as he is prepared to die, Shakespeare uses irony and an element of humour to stall the build up of tension. Bassanio says I would lose all, ay sacrifice them all here to this devil, to deliver you. This is ironic as he is saying that he would willingly sacrifice his wife, Portia who is disguised as a lawyer in the scene, to save Antonios life. She responds to this comment: Your wife would give you little thanks for that this hint of humour acts like an interlude that lightens the mood and suspends the build up of dramatic tension for the audience. When Shylocks case is lost Gratiano repetitively uses mocking comments against Shylock: O upright judge! Mark, Jew. O learni d judge! This will make the audience feel a slight sympathy towards Shylock as he is in great pain and the Christians are laughing at his punishment. The audience will either laugh along with this sadistic mockery or feel that it is a mean unnecessary action. Shakespeare uses pathos in this scene to allow the audience to hold a heartfelt sympathy towards Shylock as now the rest of the court including Portia are being irrational and merciless. Portia is being hypocritical and the most ruthless in the trial. Although she gives a speech about the quality of mercy, she has none when she manipulates the court in Antonios favour allowing him to decide a harsh punishment for Shylock. Antonio delivers the punishment: He presently become a Christian all of he dies possessed, unto to his son Lorenzo and his daughter. This example of pathos shows Antonios hatred of Shylock as he is using religion to cause him pain, in order to receive a sadistic pleasure from making him suffer for the rest of his life. The tone of Shylocks voice and the words he uses shows the pain he is feeling by this punishment. Shylock has now been isolated and the way he speaks portrays his depressed emotions: I pray you give me leave to go from hence. I am not well He is using heavy mono-syllabic words in his final speech displaying his despondent feelings and reflecting his exhausted, depressed state of mind. The director of the film of the play uses background music and stage directions to make the viewer feel for Shylock; when he is ordered to become a Christian and give up all he owns the director uses slow, sorrowful music in the background making the viewer empathetic towards Shylock. Shylock also collapses to the ground in complete shock and desperation as he hears his punishment and makes a sound like a wounded animal. This presentation of Shylock makes the viewer pity and sympathise with him as we observe his desperate frustration with the situation, we view him as a tragic figure as his extreme desire for revenge has resulted in a life of grief and depression. During the Elizabethan times the punishment of Shylock at the end of the scene would have been a delightful result. Christians were extremely prejudiced towards Jews at the time so they would not sympathise with Shylock as he loses everything. As he is asked to convert to Christianity, they would feel delight as in that time it would have been thought that the Jew was punished rightly and that he deserved it. However a 21st Century audience would have a slightly different reaction; although some may feel that Shylock deserved to be punished for his inhumane behaviour, a modern audience would be more sympathetic for him as there is more acceptance of different religions now and we would also remember all the trouble Shylock has received that would have driven him to that irrational behaviour. In general, a modern audience would be more shocked by the punishment than an Elizabethan one. Shakespeare cleverly builds up the tension in the trial scene and then he moves straight onto the final scene which is very romantic and humorous, Jessica says: In such a night did young Lorenzo swear he loved her well The audience are almost distracted by this change of atmosphere as everything in the play seems resolved as it finishes on a lighter note. There is also sense of relief at the end as the audience have been building up to the trial scene throughout the whole play, as it was the climax of the play the audience are now more relaxed as there is less suspense. However, the audience are not fully distracted by the happy and romantic conclusion of the play, although everything seems to be resolved the audience will remember the harsh consequence that Shylock received and the way Portia became merciless and irrational in the trial scene. These miserable events will linger in the audiences mind after the play even though the final scene was a happy, romantic one. In conclusion, Shakespeare successfully creates tension in the trial scene by stalling and prolonging the build up of tension which effectively leaves the audience in suspense and keeps them on edge throughout the scene as they struggle decide who to sympathise with in the end.

Sometimes Referred Female Genital Cutting †Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Discuss About The Sometimes Referred To As Female Genital Cutting? Answer: Introducation Female genital mutilation which is abbreviated as FGM is sometimes referred to as female genital cutting is the process by which clitoris of girls is cut so as to restrict their desire for sex and reserve their honor sexually before they get married. This procedure is done by removing total or partial exterior genitalia or additional damage to the organs of females for either cultural reasons or reasons that are non-therapeutic. The FGM may involve the removing clitoris, removing labia minora partially, and stitching the labia majora at the same time leaving a minute opening for menstrual and urine movement. The FGM is a practice which is dominant in Muslim communities and its results are serious bleeding leading to death, infection of the wound, and traumatization. The few girls who survive from this manipulation suffer serious effects of health during pregnancy and marriage. The FGM have been classified into the following four type by the World Health Organization: Type 1: This involves partially or totally removing clitoris or/and prepuce (clitoridectomy). It can be classified into: Removing the prepuce only Removing the clitoris and prepuce. Type 2: This involves partially or totally eliminating the clitoris and labia minora with or without the elimination of the labia majora. It can be categorized into: Removing only labia minora Partially or totally eliminating the clitoris and labia minora Partially of totally eliminating clitoris, labia minora, and labia majora. Type 3: This involves the process of narrowing the orifice of the vagina with the formation of seal cover through positioning and cutting the labia majora and/or the labia minora, without or with clitoris removal(Bettina Shell-Duncan, 2010, p. 269). It can be classified into: Apposition and removing of the labia majora Apposition and removing of the labia minora Type 4: This type is not classified but involves removal or pricking of the labia or clitoris, cauterization through the burning of the clitoris, or introducing a substance or herbs which are corrosive into the vagina. The present estimation shows that 90% of cases of Female Genital Mutilation involves types 1 or type 2. The FGM is normally done on females between 5 years and 12 years of age for some traditions while others perform it at adolescence or before marriage(Bettina Shell-Duncan, 2010, p. 184). Background Information The practice of Female Genital Mutilation which is rooted deeply that is performed in 28 African countries, a few Asian countries, and the Middle East. An estimation shows that 100 million girls to 140 million women have undergone the FGM as well as 3 million women are at threat of experiencing the exercise yearly. The research done by the Foundation for Womens Health, Development, and Research in 2007 shows that 66000 girls who went through the FGM are staying in Wales and England while 33000 women below the 15 years old of age are at a threat of being endangered to FGM or may have experienced the mutilation(Burrage, 2013, p. 167). The Female Genital Mutilation can be traced to have started back three centuries ago. Numerous myths and reasons have been provided to explain the continuation and existence of the practice. However, Sometimes Referred Female Genital Cutting he major motive that has been suggested include aesthetic purposes, prevention of rape, religion, provision of income source for the circumciser, and safeguarding virginity before marriage. The FGM is usually observed as a rite of passage which should be done for a woman to belong to a given community or have a sense of identity in the community or culture. There is a group which believes that the practice promoted cleanliness in women(Center for Reproductive Law Policy, 2011, p. 158). A woman that has been circumcised is usually considered as being pure spiritually and have the ability to persevere all sufferings that are faced by every woman for a given community. A woman who is not circumcised is believed to be shameful and unnatural by both women and men in the society, hence not fit to get married and have children. The majority of communities and women that perform the FGM have faith that they are doing the best for their children, hence they do not consider the practice as being any form of child protection issue or child abuse. The majority of societies believe that the practice is a religious obligation. Nevertheless, this practice is not pointed out in Bible or Koran(Karanja, 2014, p. 247). Numerous academics and Muslims in the West insist that the FGM is not embedded in religion but reasonably in culture. However, in some villages, those who carry out the practice believe it to be a religious mandate. Religion is theology as well as a practice. The FGM has been an important agenda for Non-governmental Organization and agencies of United Nation for approximately the three decades. In early 1958, the United Nation Commission on Human Rights embraced a resolution reproving the act. The International momentum against the FGM built when the World Health Organization was invited by the Economic and Social Council to study the persistence of the tradition endangering women to this ritual operation(Karanja, 2014, p. 169). In the year 1979, there was the denouncement of the practice by the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and the Convention on the Childs Rights pointed out in 1989 that FGM is a harmful custom practice. The program of Health Survey and Demographic which was a scheme sponsored by the UN Agency for International Development to help in mission on reproductive and medical health surveys found out that 130 million girls are 28 countries in Africa have undergone the practice showing that the practice the FGM is expanding rather than diminishing(Burrage, 2013, p. 214). Activist and Anthropologist categorize the FGM into three major types which include the Pharaonic circumcision which involves the removal of the whole clitoris, the media and labia majora are cut with both sections of the organ sewed together to allow just a small opening. Clitorectomy needs the removal of the whole clitoris together with a section of labia minora. The Sunna circumcision which in majorly practiced in Islamic countries involves the elimination of the prepuce of the clitoris. Numerous experts have suggested that the FGM is an African Practice since half of the presented cases in the official statistics happened in Ethiopia and Egypt which highest prevalence being in Sudan(Momoh, 2011, p. 187). There have also been reports on the presence of the practice in the Middle East. The recent findings from the Northern part of Iraq show that the practice is hugely in the regions that are outside the African continent. The majority of the women questioned denoted that the practice to be religious and traditional obligations. The war against the Female Genital Mutilation has been going on in the past and is still ongoing in the present societies by numerous organizations nationwide. This practice is deeply rooted in some societies despite the modernizations in the present world(Bettina Shell-Duncan, 2010, p. 154). Reference Bettina Shell-Duncan, Y. H. (2010). Female "circumcision" in Africa: Culture, Controversy, and Change. Paris: Lynne Rienner Publishers. Burrage, H. (2013). Eradicating Female Genital Mutilation: A UK Perspective. Colorado: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. Center for Reproductive Law Policy, R. (. (2011). Female Genital Mutilation: A Practical Guide to Worldwide Laws Policies. New York: Zed Books. Karanja, D. N. (2014). Female Genital Mutilation in Africa. New York: Xulon Press. Momoh, C. (2011). Female Genital Mutilation. Michigan: Radcliffe Publishing. Skaine, R. (2010). Female Genital Mutilation: Legal, Cultural, and Medical Issues. London: McFarland.